1. French Society During the Late Eighteenth Century

 

Louis XVI and the Financial Crisis in France

Louis XVI's Accession:

·         Ascended the throne of France in 1774 at the age of 20.
·         Married to Marie Antoinette, an Austrian princess.
·         Inherited an empty treasury due to prolonged wars and an extravagant court.

Financial Burden:

·         Wars, including support for American independence, added significant debt.

·         France's national debt exceeded 2 billion livres, with lenders charging 10% interest.

·         A large portion of the state's budget was spent on interest payments.

·         The government increased taxes but struggled to cover its expenses.

 

The Old Regime and Social Structure

The Estates System:

·         French society was divided into three estates:

·         First Estate: Clergy, who were exempt from taxes and enjoyed privileges.

·         Second Estate: Nobility, who also enjoyed tax exemptions and feudal privileges.

·         Third Estate: Commoners, who bore the tax burden and included peasants, artisans, and the emerging middle class.

·         Peasants, comprising 90% of the population, owned little land; most was owned by the nobility, the Church, and wealthy commoners.

·         The Third Estate paid all taxes, including direct taxes (taille) and indirect taxes on everyday goods.

Feudal Obligations:

·         Peasants were required to perform services for the lords, including labour in their fields, military service, and road construction.

·         The Church collected tithes from peasants.

Economic Struggles and Social Unrest

Population Growth and Food Shortages:

·         France's population grew from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789.

·         Increased demand for food led to rising prices, particularly for bread.

·         Wages did not keep pace with the rising cost of living, widening the gap between rich and poor.

·         Frequent subsistence crises occurred due to poor harvests caused by drought or hail.

Emergence of the Middle Class:

·   A new middle class arose within the Third Estate, gaining wealth through trade and manufacturing.

·         This group included merchants, manufacturers, lawyers, and officials.

·         They were educated and believed in merit-based social positions, not privilege by birth.

Influence of Enlightenment Ideas

Philosophical Influence:

·         Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, and Montesquieu challenged the divine right of kings and proposed new government models.

·         Locke's "Two Treatises of Government" refuted absolute monarchy.

·         Rousseau's social contract theory emphasized government by consent of the governed.

·         Montesquieu advocated for a separation of powers within government.

·         These ideas influenced the American Revolution and were discussed widely in France.

Spread of Revolutionary Ideas:

·         Enlightenment ideas spread through salons, coffee-houses, books, and newspapers.

·         The proposed increase in taxes by Louis XVI sparked anger and protest against the existing privileges and the old regime.

 

 Summary

  In 1774, Louis XVI became the King of France, inheriting an empty treasury due to years of war and extravagant court expenses. The French government, heavily in debt and unable to manage its finances, increased taxes, which burdened the common people—the Third Estate—who were the only ones required to pay taxes. Meanwhile, the clergy and nobility, who formed the First and Second Estates, enjoyed significant privileges, including tax exemptions and feudal rights.

France's population growth led to increased demand for food, causing bread prices to rise sharply. Wages remained stagnant, deepening the economic divide between the rich and poor. Frequent food shortages and subsistence crises fueled discontent among the masses.

During this time, an educated and prosperous middle class emerged within the Third Estate. Influenced by Enlightenment philosophers like John Locke, Rousseau, and Montesquieu, they began to challenge the old feudal system and the idea of privileges based on birth. These ideas, advocating for a society based on merit, freedom, and equality, spread through salons and coffee-houses, leading to widespread anger and protest against the monarchy's plans to impose further taxes. This growing discontent set the stage for the French Revolution.